Birds of the same feather? - The parallels between Indian and Greek Philosophies

It is very surprising that similar philosophical thought processes evolved in India and Greece around the same time, even though they were separated by great distance. Based on what we know conclusively from history, at least as of now, there was not much of an exchange of ideas between these two cultures until Alexander's invasion of India in 325 BCE. For now we will have to leave to speculation whether there was an actual flow of thoughts between the two cultures or they just happened to develop independently with similarities in thinking patterns.

Let us look at the Greek philosopher Plato, who is believed to have lived at least a century before Alexander. A disciple of Socrates, Plato is undoubtedly considered to have laid the foundations of western philosophy. In his most famous book Republic, Plato discusses (through the dialogues of Socrates) the social structure of an ideal city where three classes of people exist, namely, Guardians, Soldiers and Merchants. The Guardians led by a Philosopher King rules the city, the Soldiers provide protection to the city and enforce the rules and the Merchants manage the economic activities. He then extends this concept to an individual and says the soul has three parts, pictorially represented as a chariot driven by two horses, one white and other black. The lowest part is called 'Appetitive' and is represented by the black horse. The Appetitive part concerns itself with material desires, pulling the person towards more and more sensual experience.  The next higher part is the 'Spirited' represented by the white horse. The Spirited part of the soul concerns itself with emotional satisfaction like honor, recognition etc.  And, the third and highest part is 'Reason' which is represented by the charioteer controlling the chariot driven by the white and black horses. The Reason part of the soul seeks education and knowledge. According to Plato, for a soul to flourish ( i.e.,  to have the virtues of Courage, Wisdom, Justice and Temperance fully manifest),   the Reason has to be in charge, Spirited should work as an ally to Reason and Appetite has to be subservient to both Spirit and Reason.

Now let's look at two texts from India, the Kathopanishad which is not dated and the Ramayana which is believed to be 6th century BCE or earlier. Kathopanishad is from the Yajur Veda and has the same antecedents as the Taithiriyopanishad that I discussed in an earlier blog. In the Kathopanishad the teacher is Yama, the God of death and the student is the young boy Nachiketa who happened to seek Yama out for receiving the teaching on what is the ultimate truth. In the course of his instruction, Yama paints the picture of a chariot: "Know the individual self as the master of the chariot and the body as the chariot. Know the intellect to be the charioteer and the mind as verily the bridle. They call the sense organs the horses.  The man who has as his charioteer a discriminating intellect and who has under control the reins of the mind, attains the end of road." (Translation from Sanskrit are from the book "Eight Upanishads" by Swami Gambhirananda, published by Ramakrishna Mission Advaita Asrama)

So, here is an improved picture over Plato's, adding a rider to the chariot! We see a repeat of the same imagery later on in the Bhagawad Gita also.

Now, let us look at Ramayana which has the status of being the primary epic of south Asia with its influence not limited by the borders of India. The author of Ramayana is Sage Valmiki. Though Ramayana is popular for the divinity of the central character, Lord Rama, we shouldn't overlook the fact that this is a story written by one of the greatest sages of India. He could have very well buried the gems of his philosophical insights under the covers of the story he renders!

In the Ramayana, Valmiki presents the three demonic brothers Ravana, Kumbakarna and Vibheekshana. Ravana, is the ten headed monster who traumatizes the world, has no propriety and chases after anything and everything that he likes to have, whether that was Kubera's flying chariot Pushpaka, the heavenly damsel Rambha or Sita the chaste wife of Rama. Metaphorically the ten heads of Ravana are said to represent the five sense organs (Eyes, Ears, Nose, Touch and Taste) and five organs of action (Hands, Legs, Speech, Sexual and Excretory) and Ravana himself stands for the forceful, impulsive nature of mind that craves for experiences through the sense organs and organs of action. The parallels of this to Plato's concept of Appetitive party of soul is very evident. Kumbakarna is the giant who sleeps for most of the time and wakes up once in a while to fill his stomach or fight a war for Ravana. Called into war, Kumbakarna is unstoppable and fearsome with his strength. The  parallels of characterization of Kumbakarna to Plato's spirited part of soul again is somewhat evident. The name Kumbakarna, in Sanskrit means one with pot shaped ears indicating that he collects what he hears. And, Kumbakarna is asleep most of the time but ferociously unstoppable when he wakes up. Both this are indicative of the nature of subconscious mind. Our subconscious mind is listening all the time, collecting impressions as it listens. Generally asleep but when awakened, the subconscious mind's influence is unstoppable. The third brother Vibheeshana is knowledgaable, full of wisdom and tries his best to dissuade Ravana and Kumbakarna from their evil deeds but unfortunately gets no listening. Again, the Sanskrit name Vibheeshana means one who is unafraid, a poetical way of saying he is always objective in his reasoning. The tale of the three brothers ends with Rama's slaying of Ravana and Kumbakarna and making Vibheeshana the King. With Reason established as King, virtues return to the people of Lanka.

Though similar in their praise of reason, there are obvious differences between the Greek and Indian thinking of what exactly the soul is. While Reason, Spirit and Appetite are parts of soul for Plato (at least in The Republic - there are few variations in other books), the soul is different from these and 'a master of chariot' in the Indian philosophy. However, Plato, Valmiki and the Rishi of Kathopanishad, all of them have the same message for us: establish Reason as the King in our minds and develop the virtue of moderation to keep appetite and spirit in restrain. 

Hindu Religion: A quick aerial survey

The collection of literary material that forms what the world has come to refer to as Hindu Religion, is extremely vast and is not common knowledge even amongst the practitioners of the religion. Here is a bird's eye view of what the Hindu religious scriptures encompass.

1.       Pranava or Aum: Pronounced as 'Om' , the pranava is a combination of sounds  'A' (pronounced as in 'Ahh'), 'U' (pronounced as in 'Ooo') and 'Ma' (pronounced as 'Mah'). Usually all Sanskrit words have an etymological reference to root words or sounds  but in the case of 'Aum'  there is no associated etymology as it is the foundation for all sounds. 'Aum'  is the heart and soul of the entire Veda literature. The Taithiriyopanishad expresses this primordial status of AUM by poetically saying 'Aum which is all encompassing, is the bull of all veda hymns'. Lord Krishna also says in Bhagawad Gita 'I am Pranava in all the Vedas' reinforcing the importance. Metaphorically AUM stands for many 'trios' encountered by us including the three temporal states (past, present and future), three states of being experienced by the individual soul (wakeful, dream and sleep), the three worlds of experience (Bhur, Bhuva and Suva), the three parts of Gayatri meter of hymns, the three aspects of creation (Self, World and God), the three states of being for the universal self (Iswara, Hiranyagarba and Virat)   etc.  However, what is considered to be more important than the sound of AUM is the quality of silence it produces at the end of the chant, representing the fourth state of being  called 'Tureeya avastha' which is pure awareness  that transcends subject-object-knowledge distinction  and space-Time limitations.

2.       Vedas: The Vedas form the foundation of Hindu religion, acting as the source of authority on religious matters.  It can be said that what identifies a person as belonging to Hindu religion is the acceptance of the authority of Vedas in good faith. Developed and retained by an oral education tradition, Vedas are also known as 'Sruthi' meaning 'what was heard'. The Vedas are organized into four collections, namely Rik, Yajus, Saama and Atharva. Each Veda has four parts to it. The first part Samhita contains hymns and statements, the second part Brahmana contains rituals and injunctions generally targeted to the head of household  (Grihasta Asrami), the third part Aranyaka contains rituals and instructions for those who have retired to the forest (Vanaprasta Asrami) and the fourth part Upansishad contains the philosophical instructions on enlightenment (jnana) and path of liberation for the soul (moksha). Being located at the end of the collection, Upanishads are also called as Vedanta (end of Veda) and has also been interpreted as end of conventional knowledge. Upanishads are not strictly contained in one part of the Veda and sometimes dispersed amongst Aranyakas, Brahmanas  and Samhitas. The word Veda literally means knowledge (comes from the root word 'vid' meaning 'to know') and the Vedas are essentially a collection of various knowledge systems.

3.       Vedangas (Limbs of Veda): Based on the topics addressed, the body of Veda literature is said to have six 'limbs'. Vendangas are identified with limbs because they enable a student of Veda to acquire and retain the Vedic knowledge. These are:

a.       Siksha - The art of enunciation

b.      Vyakarana - Grammer

c.       Chandas - Meters for the verses

d.      Nirukta - Etymology

e.      Jyothisha - Knowledge of celestial bodies and luminaries

f.        Kalpa - Procedural instructions for conducting rituals

4.       Veda Sakhas (Branches of Veda): The Veda literature evolved under different schools, each of which was called a Veda Sakha.  A good part of these Veda Sakhas have been lost forever, and of the available the most prominently known are the following:

a.       Rik Veda - Sakala, Sankhyana sakhas; Aitareya and Kausitaki Brahmanas

b.      Yajur Veda - Sukla and Krishna Yajurveda sakhas; Taithiriya and Satapada Brahmanas

c.       Sama Veda -Jaiminiya and  Gautama sakhas

d.      Atharva Veda - Saunaka, Pippalada sakhas; Gopatha Brahmana

5.       Upa Vedas:  A number of sciences dealing with worldly knowledge are attached to Vedas. These include (not limited to):

a.       Ayur Veda - Medicinal science on health

b.      Dhanur Veda - Art of archery

c.       Gandharva Veda - Performing arts

6.       Smritis (Recollections): Smritis are the restatements of the Veda principles by many seers, providing clarifications and elaborations. Smritis were created at different points of time and the authors of the Smiritis interpreted the Veda intent in the context of social practices existing at that time. The most famous of the Smiritis are Manu Smriti and Bhagawad Gita. It is      important to note that whenever there is a conflict between the statements in the Smriti and Veda, the Veda is considered to be the authority. And, Smritis are considered temporal unlike Vedas that are considered to be eternal.

7.       Puranas: The etymology of the word 'purana' is 'pura eve nava' meaning 'what remains new in spite of being aged'. Puranas are collections of mythical, fictional and historical fiction stories that were told with the intent of conveying the philosophical ideas of the Vedas through metaphors. There are 18 puranas, each of them focusing on one or many Saguna Daiva (God or God incarnate with defined qualities). The most important of the Puranas is the Bhagawata Purana that elaborates on the different incarnations of Lord Vishnu. Most of the temple worship currently in practice in Hindu religion are greatly influenced by the Puranas.

8.       Itihasas (Epics): The most popular of all the Hindu religion literature are the two epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata. Epics differ from Puranas on account of their subject matter being more focused on human kind as opposed to celestial beings. There is hardly any competition to the stature of the Itihasas as the primary set of literature that have shaped the Indian societies and their culture.

9.       Darsanas (Schools of Thought): As opposed to the Itihasas, the Darsanas are the least known component of Hindu religion. Darsanas are various philosophical schools of thought that developed over a period of time and provided the basis for rational analysis of the subject matter of religion, viz., the Self, the Universe, God and relationship between them. The following six Darsanas are formally recognized (the key texts and authors in parenthesis):

a.       Sankhya - Definitive knowledge (Text: Sankhya Karika of Iswarakrishna)

b.      Nyaya - Logical knowledge; (Text: Nyaya sutra of Gautama with Vatsyayana Bashya)

c.       Vaiseshika - Differentiation of qualifiers and characteristics (Text: Vaiseshika sutra of Kanada with Prasastapada Bashya)

d.      Purva Mimasma - Treatise on rituals and benefits (Text: Mimamsa sutra of Jaimini with Slokavartika of Kumarilabhatta)

e.      Yoga - Self-realization through yoga practice; (Text: Yoga Sutra of Patanjali)

f.        Uttara Mimamsa - Treatise on Brahman (Text: Brahma Sutra of Krshnadvaipayana Vyasa)

10.   Other supporting texts: The largest collection of material on Hindu religion will fall into this category that encompasses original works by various saints (prakaranas, satakas, stotras),  commentaries (Bhashya) on original works, supplementary texts (Karikas, Vartikas, Tikas) as well as the entire stotra sahitya (Hymns to deities). Works of Adi Sankaracharya, Ramanuja and Madhwacharya are of special mention in this category.

Sounds like too much to know? Shouldn't be a worry. As Lord Krishna reassures in Bhagawad Gita "swalpam abhyasya dharmasys, thraayate mahato bhayaad" meaning "one can expect to transcend the greatest of all fears by practicing even a slight part of dharma",what is important is not how comprehensive our spiritual knowledge is but how much we have assimilated and integrated it into daily life. Same time, I hope this overview will help you to get a picture of how exhaustive Hindu religion is and what great resources are available within there. 

Five Meditations - From Taithiriyopanishad

Taithiriyopanishad appears in the Krishna Yajurveda Taithiriya Samhita. It is very popular for its poetical and metaphorical treatment of the subject of vedanta and is commonly chanted in many vaishavite temples. 

At the every begiing of the upansihad,  in preparation for the detailed teaching on Brahman that is to follow, the Rishi of the Taithiriyopanishad offers to his students 5 sepaarte topics for their reflection. He calls these as 'mahasamhita', the Great Instructions. As common with many other Upanishadic statements, these instructions also  may not look very meaningful on surface. But on deeper consideration, their brilliance is revealed. Here is one perspective to go beyond the superficial meaning of these topics.

The 5 topics for reflection are:

• Adhilokam - about worlds of experience
• Adhijauthisham - about science of luminaries
• Adhividyam  - about  science of knowledge
• Adhiprajam - about progeny
• Adhyatmam - about self

Each of these topics is presented in a framework that specifies a pre-form (poorvaroopam), a post-form (uttararopam),  the enjoinder (sandhi)  that connects or separates the two forms and a means (sandhanam) for traversing from pre-form to post-form. Here is an overview.

Topic	Pre-form	Post-form	Enjoinder	Means
Adhilokam	Earth (Prithvi)	Heaven (Dyau)	Space (Akasa)	Air (Vayu)
Adhijauthisham	Fire (Agni)	Sun (Aditya)	Water (Apa)	Lightning (Vaidyutha)
Adhividyam	Teacher (Acharya)	Student (Anthevasi)	Knowledge (Vidya)	Deliberation (pravachanam)
Adhiprajam	Mother (Maata)	Father (Pitha)	Child (Praja)	Procreation (Prajananam)
Adhyatmam	Lower Jaw (adhara hanu)	Upper Jaw (uthara hanu)	Word (vak)	Tongue (Jihwa)

Let's take a closer look at each one of them. Please refer to the table above as each topic is discussed.

1. Adhilokam - about the worlds of experience. (Poorvaroopam-Prithvi; Uttararoopam-Dyau; Sandhi-Akasa; Sandhanam-Vayu)  Our current experience is that of this world, which is full of divisions (prithvi - earth:  prithaktvena  means separated or divided and because of the divisive experience it offers, Earth is called prithvi). What we want to change this experience to,  is the illuminated state (Dyau) of Bliss where there are no divisions. What is separating the two states is our cognition of space (akasa). We can overcome this separation in Samadhi using Yoga, control of breath (vayu).
2. Adhijauthisham - about the science of luminaries. (Poorvaroopam-Agni; Uttararoopam-Aditya; Sandhi-Apa; Sandhanam-Vaidyuta) We experience the world through the 'fire' (agni) in our sense organs. Our current identity or state of being is defined based on this experience. Our true state of being is the Awareness (aditya: "yathadityagatam thejam.. thad thejo vidhi mamakam - Know me to be the effulgence that makes the sun illuminate" B.G Ch 15) that powers the sense organs. What separates the two states of being is the continuous stream of Consciousness (Apa).  We can overcome this separation through  visions of self, obtained from right knowledge (vaidyuta - born from vidya, i.e., knowledge)
3. Adhividyam - about science of knowledge. (Poorvaroopam-Acharya; Uttararoopam-Anthevasi; Sandhi-Vidya; Sandhanam-Pravachananam) The initial state of knowledge is when the knowledge is external, as seen with the Teacher who also demonstrates it in practice (Acharya). The transformed state is when the knowledge is internalized, becomes one with the student (anthevasi - one who dwells inside). What separates the two states of being is the external knowledge itself which is to be traversed through deliberation (pravachanam - the act of discourse or deliberation)
4. Adhiprajam - about progeny.(Poorvaroopam-Maata; Uttararoopam-Pita; Sandhi-Praja; Sandhanam-Prajananam)   We are initially what we are born with from the mother (Maata). What we could become is what we are protected, educated and nurtured for by the father (Pita). What separates the two states of being is our strong identification with what we are born with (praja). We can overcome this separation by transforming ourselves (prajananam - procreation; self-transformation in this context)
5. Adhyatmam - about the self. (Poorvaroopam-adhara hanu; Uttararoopam-uttara hanu; Sandhi-vak; Sandhanam-jihwa) We identify and express ourselves with the movements, just as speech is identified with the movement of lower jaw (adhara hanu) that causes it. But this movement  is based on and enabled by our true, motionless state, like the upper jaw (uthara hanu). As Sage Patanjali says in Yogasutra, the 'chitha vritti'  or movement of consciousness, causes the self to be identified  with those movements and with Yoga, the self is able to free itself from this fals identification and realize its observer state. What separates the two states of being is self-expressions (vak - word). We can overcome this separation in meditation where awareness burns like a flame without a wick (Jihwa - in addition to tongue this also means a flame: "yatha deepo nivathastah nengate sopama smrita" - The awareness of a meditator is said to be motionless like a steady flame in a windless environment: BG Ch 6)

Meditated thus, these 5 mediations prepares one for receiving the teaching on Brahman.

(The above has few extrapolations beyond the traditional teaching on the subject. These thoughts were Inspired by a discourse on this topic by Sree Aswath on Nov 10th, 2013)